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lunes, 23 de marzo de 2026

EN DEFENSA DE LA METAFÍSICA

 



La metafísica está lejos de haber desaparecido, a pesar de los innumerables anuncios de su muerte. Quizás no se encuentra en primer plano y se encuentra apartada de las modas, especialmente de aquellas que propugnan que se vive en un tiempo postmetafísico. Contra la posmodernidad, ella persiste; incluso, se termina por descubrir que muchos de los giros filosóficos que pretenden dejarla atrás se fundan en su reafirmación, en un movimiento subyacente que, generalmente, se quiere ocultar. ¿De dónde proviene esta condición que obliga a que se vuelva una y otra vez a realizar un gesto metafísico? ¿Cuáles son los fundamentos y motivos de su presencia? ¿Por qué encontramos en las corrientes que más fuertemente la rechazan un núcleo metafísico que las anima y sustenta?

La producción teórica sobre este campo ciertamente está lejos de ser comparable a otras áreas de la filosofía; por ejemplo, comparado con la proliferación de ontologías; sin embargo, la bibliografía sobre la metafísica se mantiene actualizada, con nuevos enfoques, desarrollos y desafíos, aun sin tomar en cuenta aquellos estudios que tienen esta orientación, sin explicitarla. (Bliss & Miller, 2021) (Marmodoro & Mayr, 2019) (Miller, 2022) (Thomasson, 2025)

La actitud imperialista del borramiento de la metafísica sustentada en una conceptualización que es, precisamente, metafísica, se encuentra en la base de las principales corrientes que postulan su superación. Estos enfoques filosóficos realizan un doble movimiento conceptual; por una parte, reducen un campo entero de larga duración y extensión a un solo componente, que se convierte en omniexplicativo. Una vez que se ha hecho esta reducción extrema y absoluta, se postula un nuevo origen privilegiado, a partir del cual se reconstruye toda la realidad. Por supuesto, es un origen que se fundamenta a sí mismo desde la nada o, en otros casos, que se pretende como carente de todo fundamento.

Heidegger, probablemente el iniciador de esta corriente en el siglo XX, reduce 25 siglos de filosofía y pensamiento occidental a un solo hecho, que sería el causante de todos los males e incomprensiones del mundo. Negando la inmensa riqueza y variedad de la filosofía occidental, el olvido del ser se convierte en el núcleo metafísico que tiene que negarse y superarse (Heidegger, 2014). Por su parte, Derrida siguiendo este rastro, ubica en la denuncia de la onto-teo-teleo-logía la posibilidad de pensar, colocando en vez de este principio metafísico a la deconstrucción asentada sobre el diferencialismo. Postula la inexistencia de un comienzo que remite a un ser o a un ente privilegiados, y considera que, ante la ausencia de un origen, tenemos ante nosotros una huella de sí misma, una huella de la huella. Así, Derrida pretende borrar los profundos debates que están contenidos en esa onto-teo-teleo-logía que, si la miramos de cerca, se resiste a perder la multiplicidad que la conforma. (Derrida, 1971) (Gersh, Neoplatonism After Derrida: Parallelograms, 2006)

Estas orientaciones imperialistas que invaden la filosofía también penetran en otros ámbitos. En el caso de Jean-Luc Marion, el gesto de la reducción absoluta se convierte en la perspectiva apofática, que niega cualquier aproximación positiva por medio de la razón, a Dios y a los fenómenos trascendentes. Dios, siguiendo a ciertas corrientes neoplatónicas, se ubica por fuera del ser; no se puede decir que existe o que no existe, porque es una exterioridad absoluta. Desde luego, no se trata de una posición atea, sino de la reintroducción de la divinidad en la esfera humana, por la exclusiva vía de la experiencia. Los riesgos de irracionalismo no dejan de estar presentes en estas orientaciones. (Marion, 2010)

Finalmente, me refiero al pensamiento decolonial, parte de los estudios culturales, que incorpora en su teoría este primer gesto absoluto y negativo: la exclusión de todo lo que provenga de Europa y de Occidente. Sin importar sus diferencias ni su historia, todo el pensamiento occidental queda negado por considerarlo como eurocéntrico. A partir de esta división radical surge la metafísica decolonial con un origen puro, que por el solo hecho de ubicarse fuera de Europa, pone a su alcance la verdad del mundo y la superación de los límites epistémicos y epistemológicos del eurocentrismo. Las consecuencias negativas de este enfoque no solo han tenido repercusiones en la comprensión de la realidad, sino que conducen a un desarme político e ideológico. (Mignolo, 2003)

Veamos ahora, de manera sintética, las razones por las que la metafísica sigue estando presente y, más aún, es indispensable para un adecuado desarrollo de toda filosofía y, por supuesto, para un entendimiento adecuado de la realidad. Comencemos por los problemas filosóficos que requieren de un enfoque metafísico para su correcto tratamiento.

El tratamiento del tiempo, con los debates acerca de su existencia y de la relación entre persistencia y flujo, además, de las cuestiones del estatuto ontológico del pasado, presente y futuro (Dyke, 2021); la función de la razón frente al ascenso de los irracionalismos, junto con la cualificación del tipo de racionalidad que debería defenderse (Erice Sebares, 2020); el debate sobre la esencia, más allá de las interpretaciones sustancialistas y su capacidad de explicativa de los fenómenos, que se presentan en la dualidad entre esencia y manifestación (Glazier, 2022); la dilucidación de las relaciones, que se las puede considerar como las únicas realmente existentes o, por el contrario, solo como parte de un entrama ontológico mayor (Heil, 2021); por último, el renacimiento de la mereología que da cuenta de las relaciones entre el todo y las partes, y el modo cómo estructuran la realidad (Wallace, 2023). Desde luego, esta es solo una parte de los problemas que trata la metafísica contemporánea.

La ciencia y la tecnología conforman unos conocimientos y prácticas sin las cuales el mundo, tal como lo conocemos, no podría existir; por esto, se tiene que evitar la confusión entre la crítica al secuestro capitalista de la ciencia y la adopción de posiciones románticas o irracionales que conducen a la negación de su racionalidad. Ahora bien, de ninguna manera la ciencia agota toda la esfera del conocimiento ni provee de explicaciones completas del mundo. Más aún, cada ciencia deja sin resolver cuestiones fundamentales que no alcanza a explicar; además de producir una serie de cuestiones que requieren de un debate metafísico para resolverlas. (Morganti, 2024)

Por esto, se tiene una serie de aproximaciones metafísicas a las ciencias; desde el debate en torno a los objetos materiales hasta la discusión de los objetos abstractos, atravesando por las cuestiones filosóficas planteadas por la química o la biología. (Sattig, 2021) (Liggins, 2024) (Seifert, 2023) Uno de los terrenos más fecundos para los debates metafísicos es la física contemporánea, por las discusiones provocadas en la teoría de la relatividad y la mecánica cuántica, que son fundamentalmente contraintuitivas y que ponen en cuestión la imagen que se tiene acerca de la realidad. (Torza, 2023) (Ney, 2021)

Alain Aspect, premio Nobel del año 2022, en su libro Si Einstein lo hubiera sabido, al reconstruir el debate de Einstein, que consideraba que la mecánica cuántica es incompleta y que necesita ser complementada por otras variables, muestra con claridad la necesidad de la metafísica, que comienza allí en donde la ciencia se topa con los límites de la comprensión de la realidad y no puede dotarnos de una imagen adecuada de la realidad y del mundo en el que vivimos. Los experimentos llevados a cabo por Aspect demostraron, con un alto grado de certeza, la violación de las igualdades de Bell y, por lo tanto, la existencia del entrelazamiento cuántico; esto es, las partículas entrelazadas están conectadas de tal manera que cualquier cambio en una repercute inmediatamente en la otra, sin que se comprenda a cabalidad por qué sucede esto.

Alain Aspect señala dos grandes problemas metafísicos que atraviesan la mecánica cuántica: la no localidad y el carácter físico de la función de onda.

Einstein utiliza a veces la expresión “spooky action at a distance” (acción fantasmal a distancia) para describir tal posibilidad, que es inaceptable para el padre de la relatividad. Sin embargo, hoy en día debemos considerarla; es lo que se denomina “no localidad cuántica”. (Aspect, 2025, pág. 315)

Nos enfrentamos a una realidad regida por la teoría de la relatividad que afirma que nada puede viajar más rápido que la velocidad de la luz; o, por el contrario, hay fenómenos no locales que cuestionan esta afirmación y prueban la acción a distancia instantánea.

El otro debate metafísico igualmente profundo está en el carácter que se le asigna a la función de onda, que es aquella que describe los fenómenos cuánticos. Se puede sostener, siguiendo la interpretación de Copenhague, que se trata de un mero cálculo y que la cuestión de si es real o no, carece de importancia, en la medida en que funciona perfectamente; o, como alternativa que presenta Aspect, la función de onda existe efectivamente.

Mi punto de vista es diferente porque yo otorgo una cierta realidad física a la función de onda, precisamente porque permite predecir los resultados de las medidas y que eso es lo que espero de la realidad física… (Aspect, 2025, pág. 317)

Los problemas que la humanidad enfrenta, lejos de resolverse, se han agravado. Desde la perspectiva metafísica, al menos tres cuestiones relevantes emergen de la situación actual: primero, el destino de la humanidad como especie, la posibilidad ya no remota, sino actual, de su desaparición debido a las guerras, el hambre, la crisis climática, la devastación que provocan los gobiernos de ultraderecha como última arma del capitalismo.

Segundo, la cuestión todavía más desafiante, de la relación entre los seres humanos y la naturaleza, que ahora se encuentra quebrada y que no se ve un punto de encuentro y de resolución, de tal manera que se logre una armonía entre ambos, una convivencia apropiada que permita salvar a la naturaleza y garantizar una vida digna para las personas.

No es suficiente con la reivindicación de los localismos y las opciones fragmentarias; peor aún, de los relativismos. Vuelve nuevamente a colocarse en el centro de la reflexión filosófica la cuestión de los universales; y, en primer lugar, del futuro de la vida y de toda la humanidad sobre la Tierra. Tenemos que pensar como planeta, porque las respuestas solo serán válidas si las respuestas son globales. No hay soluciones válidas y viables en el mediano y largo plazo que sean únicamente locales.

Tercero, las cuestiones de la identidad que han adquirido una importancia cada vez más grande y que se expresan de manera particularmente conflictiva en el estallido de la heterosexualidad como paradigma dominante y en el surgimiento de los más diversos modos de vivir el género. Así, el transgénero no solo tiene relevancia para su propio campo, sino que atraviesa metafísicamente el orden social, convertido en el operador Trans* que cuestiona el statu quo de la sociedad entera. (Shumener, 2022)

La metafísica está lejos de agotarse en las temáticas señaladas. En una capa todavía más profunda se ocupa de Bien, Verdad y Belleza, y de suerte en las sociedades contemporáneas. Víctor Cousin, siguiendo a Platón, postula la unidad de estos tres grandes principios orientadores de toda acción humana. (Cousin, 1847) La Belleza ha dejado de ser un bien común y un derecho de todos los pueblos y personas; se ha convertido en un objeto de lujo al que solo una minoría puede acceder. Una buena parte del arte contemporáneo está encerrado en su narcisismo, en donde lo estético de la obra de arte depende exclusivamente de la subjetividad del artista y de los circuitos comerciales.

La Verdad es, sin lugar a dudas, la más atacada de todas. Como se dice en esta época de la posverdad, ella es la que menos importa. Se considera suficiente la eficacia política del discurso, la irresponsabilidad de afirmar cualquier cosa sin sustento científico en las redes sociales, la proliferación de profetas de derecha y ultraderecha haciendo girar las manillas del reloj hacia atrás.

¿Qué decir del Bien cuando el mal triunfa a nivel mundial? Los intereses del capital se imponen en el mundo entero, sin dejar lugar a salvo, de la mano de los gobiernos autoritarios. Las guerras matan inocentes a diario; los derechos de las personas se atropellan sin consideración; grandes masas son consideradas enemigos que hay que eliminar, como los migrantes y los palestinos. Los triunfos logrados se despedazan y retrocedemos a una época de oscuridad y represión.

Por esto, la unidad de Bien, Verdad y Belleza sigue siendo la tarea del presente de la humanidad, aquella que nos desafía y nos convoca.

Entonces, queda clara la urgencia de escribir unos nuevos Prolegómenos a toda metafísica futura que haya de poder presentarse como ciencia (Kant, 1959), que indique con claridad que estos temas metafísicos cruciales no constituyen una tendencia equivocada de la razón y que, de manera opuesta a lo que considera Kant, tienen que ver directamente lo empírico y con la vida diaria de pueblos y personas. No es posible echar fuera de la metafísica y, por consiguiente, de la razón, a los principios metafísicos que nos hacen ser lo que somos: Bien, Verdad y Belleza.

 

 

 

 


 

Bibliography

Aspect, A. (2025). Si Einstein lo hubiera sabido. Barcelona: Penguin Random House.

Bliss, R., & Miller, J. (Edits.). (2021). The Routledge Handbook of Metametaphysics. Routledge.

Cousin, V. (1847). Curso de filosofía: Sobre el fundamento de las ideas absolutas de lo verdadero, lo bello y lo bueno. Sociedad de Autores Libreros e Impresores de España.

Derrida, j. (1971). De la gramatología. México: Siglo XXI.

Dyke, H. (2021). Time (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108935517

Erice Sebares, F. (2020). En defensa de la razón: Contribución a la crítica del posmodernismo. Siglo XXI de España Editores / Akal.

Gersh, S. (2006). Neoplatonism After Derrida: Parallelograms. Leiden: Brill.

Glazier, M. (2022). Essence (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108935494

Heidegger, M. (2014). ¿Qué es la metafísica? Madrid: Alianza Editorial.

Heil, J. (2021). Relations (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108939904

Kant, E. (1959). Prolegómenos. Madrid: Aguilar.

Liggins, D. (2024). Abstract Objects (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press.

Marion, J.-L. (2010). Dios sin el ser. Pontevedra: Ellago Ediciones.

Marmodoro, A., & Mayr, E. (2019). Metaphysics: An Introduction to Contemporary Debates and Their History. Oxford University Press.

Mignolo, W. (2003). Historias locales, diseños globales. Madrid: Akal.

Miller, J. (2022). Metaphysical Realism and Anti-Realism (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009006927

Morganti, M. (2024). Metaphysics and the Sciences (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009238939

Ney, A. (2021). The World in the Wave Function: A Metaphysics for Quantum Physics. Oxford University Press.

Sattig, T. (2021). Material Objects (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009019606

Seifert, V. (2023). Chemistry's Metaphysics (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009238861

Shumener, E. (2022). Identity (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press.

Thomasson, A. (2025). Rethinking Metaphysics. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/9780197787830.001.0001

Torza, A. (2023). Indeterminacy in the World (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009057370

Wallace, M. (2023). Parts and Wholes (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009086561

 

 

IN DEFENSE OF METAPHYSICS

 



Metaphysics is far from having disappeared, despite the innumerable announcements of his death. Perhaps it is in the background and distant from fashions, especially those that advocate that we live in a post-metaphysical time. Against postmodernity, it persists; it is even discovered that many of the philosophical turns that seek to leave it behind are based on its reaffirmation, on an underlying movement that is generally intended to be hidden. Where does this condition come from, which forces one to return again and again to perform a metaphysical gesture? What are the grounds and reasons for their presence? Why do we find in the currents that most strongly reject it a metaphysical nucleus that animates and sustains them?

The theoretical production in this field is certainly far from being comparable to other areas of philosophy; for example, compared to the proliferation of ontologies; However, the bibliography on metaphysics remains updated, with new approaches, developments and challenges, even without taking into account those studies that have this orientation, without making it explicit.    (Bliss & Miller, 2021) (Marmodoro & Mayr, 2019) (Miller, 2022) (Thomasson, 2025)

The imperialist attitude of erasing metaphysics based on a conceptualization that is, precisely, metaphysical, is at the base of the main currents that postulate its overcoming. These philosophical approaches carry out a double conceptual movement; On the one hand, they reduce an entire field of long duration and extension to a single component, which becomes omniexplanatory. Once this extreme and absolute reduction has been made, a new privileged origin is postulated, from which all reality is reconstructed. Of course, it is an origin that bases itself from nothing or, in other cases, that claims to be completely groundless.

Heidegger, probably the initiator of this current in the twentieth century, reduces 25 centuries of Western philosophy and thought to a single fact, which would be the cause of all the evils and misunderstandings of the world. Denying the immense richness and variety of Western philosophy, the forgetfulness of being becomes the metaphysical core that has to be denied and overcome. For his part, Derrida, following this trail, locates in the denunciation of onto-theo-teleology the possibility of thinking, placing in place of this metaphysical principle the deconstruction based on differentialism. It postulates the non-existence of a beginning that refers to a privileged being or entity, and considers that, in the absence of an origin, we have before us a trace of itself, a trace of the trace. Thus, Derrida seeks to erase the deep debates that are contained in that onto-theo-teleology that, if we look at it closely, refuses to lose the multiplicity that makes it up.  (Heidegger, 2014) (Derrida, 1971)(Gersh, Neoplatonism After Derrida: Parallelograms, 2006)

These imperialist orientations that invade philosophy also penetrate other areas. In the case of Jean-Luc Marion, the gesture of absolute reduction becomes the apophatic perspective, which denies any positive approach by means of reason to God and to transcendent phenomena. God, following certain Neoplatonic currents, is located outside of being; it cannot be said that it exists or that it does not exist, because it is an absolute exteriority. Of course, it is not an atheistic position, but the reintroduction of divinity into the human sphere, by the exclusive way of experience. The risks of irrationalism are not without being present in these orientations. (Marion, 2010)

Finally, I refer to decolonial thought, part of cultural studies, which incorporates in its theory this first absolute and negative gesture: the exclusion of everything that comes from Europe and the West. Regardless of their differences or their history, all Western thought is denied because it is considered Eurocentric. From this radical division arises decolonial metaphysics with a pure origin, which, by the mere fact of being located outside Europe, puts within its reach the truth of the world and the overcoming of the epistemic and epistemological limits of Eurocentrism. The negative consequences of this approach have not only had repercussions on the understanding of reality, but also lead to political and ideological disarmament. (Mignolo, 2003)

Let us now see, in a synthetic way, the reasons why metaphysics is still present and, moreover, it is indispensable for an adequate development of all philosophy and, of course, for an adequate understanding of reality. Let us begin with the philosophical problems that require a metaphysical approach for their correct treatment.

The treatment of time, with debates about its existence and the relationship between persistence and flow, as well as questions of the ontological status of the past, present and future; the function of reason in the face of the rise of irrationalism, together with the qualification of the type of rationality that should be defended; the debate on essence, beyond substantialist interpretations and their capacity to explain, phenomena, which are presented in the duality between essence and manifestation; the elucidation of relations, which can be considered as the only ones that really exist or, on the contrary, only as part of a larger ontological framework; finally, the revival of mereology that accounts for the relationships between the whole and the parts, and the way in which they structure reality. Of course, this is only part of the problems that contemporary metaphysics deals with.    (, 2021) (Erice Sebares, 2020)(Glazier, 2022)(Heil, 2021)(Wallace, 2023)

Science and technology make up knowledge and practices without which the world, as we know it, could not exist; for this reason, the confusion between the critique of the capitalist hijacking of science and the adoption of romantic or irrational positions that lead to the denial of its rationality must be avoided. Now, science by no means exhausts the entire sphere of knowledge or provides complete explanations of the world. Moreover, each science leaves unresolved fundamental questions that it cannot explain, in addition to producing a series of questions that require a metaphysical debate to resolve them. (Morganti, 2024)

For this reason, there are a series of metaphysical approaches to the sciences, from the debate around material objects to the discussion of abstract objects, going through the philosophical questions raised by chemistry or biology. One of the most fertile terrains for metaphysical debates is contemporary physics, due to the discussions provoked in the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, which are fundamentally counterintuitive and question the image we have about reality. (Sattig, 2021) (Liggins, 2024) (Seifert, 2023) (Torza, 2023)(Ney, 2021)

Alain Aspect, Nobel Prize winner of the year 2022, in his book If Einstein had known, by reconstructing Einstein's debate, which considered that quantum mechanics is incomplete and that it needs to be complemented by other variables, clearly shows the need for metaphysics, which begins where science runs into the limits of the understanding of reality and cannot provide us with an adequate image of reality and of the world in which we live. The experiments carried out by Aspect demonstrated, with a high degree of certainty, the violation of Bell's equalities and, therefore, the existence of quantum entanglement; that is, the entangled particles are connected in such a way that any change in one immediately affects the other, without fully understanding why this happens.

Alain Aspect points out two major metaphysical problems that run through quantum mechanics: nonlocality and the physical character of the wave function.

Einstein sometimes uses the expression "spooky action at a distance" to describe such a possibility, which is unacceptable to the father of relativity. However, today we must consider it; this is what is called "quantum nonlocality". (Aspect, 2025, p. 315)

We are faced with a reality governed by the theory of relativity that states that nothing can travel faster than the speed of light; or, on the contrary, there are non-local phenomena that question this statement and prove instantaneous action at a distance.

The other equally profound metaphysical debate is in the character assigned to the wave function, which is the one that describes quantum phenomena. It can be argued, following the Copenhagen interpretation, that it is a mere calculation and that the question of whether it is real or not is unimportant, insofar as it works perfectly; or, as an alternative presented by Aspect, the wave function does indeed exist.

My point of view is different because I give a certain physical reality to the wave function, precisely because it allows us to predict the results of the measurements and that is what I expect from physical reality...  (Aspect, 2025, p. 317)

The problems that humanity faces, far from being resolved, have worsened. From the metaphysical perspective, at least three relevant questions emerge from the current situation: first, the fate of humanity as a species, the possibility that it is no longer remote, but current, of its disappearance due to wars, hunger, the climate crisis, the devastation caused by ultra-right governments as the last weapon of capitalism.

Second, the even more challenging issue of the relationship between human beings and nature, which is now broken and that there is no meeting point and resolution, in such a way that harmony is achieved between the two, an appropriate coexistence that allows saving nature and guaranteeing a dignified life for people.

It is not enough to vindicate localisms and fragmentary options; even worse, of relativism. The question of universals is once again placed at the center of philosophical reflection; and, in the first place, of the future of life and of all humanity on Earth. We have to think as a planet, because the answers will only be valid if the answers are global. There are no valid and viable solutions in the medium and long term that are only local.

Third, the questions of identity that have acquired an increasingly great importance and that are expressed in a particularly conflictive way in the explosion of heterosexuality as the dominant paradigm and in the emergence of the most diverse ways of experiencing gender. Thus, the transgender person not only has relevance to his own field but also metaphysically crosses the social order, becoming the Trans* operator who questions the status quo of society as a whole. (Shumener, 2022)

Metaphysics is far from exhausted in the themes indicated. On an even deeper layer it deals with Good, Truth and Beauty, and with luck in contemporary societies. Victor Cousin, following Plato, postulates the unity of these three great guiding principles of all human action.  Beauty has ceased to be a common good and a right of all peoples and individuals; it has become a luxury object that only a minority can access. A good part of contemporary art is locked in its narcissism, where the aesthetics of the work of art depend exclusively on the subjectivity of the artist and the commercial circuits. (Cousin, 1847)

The Truth is, without a doubt, the most attacked of all. As they say in this post-truth era, she is the one who matters the least. The political effectiveness of the discourse, the irresponsibility of affirming anything without scientific support on social networks, the proliferation of right-wing and ultra-right prophets turning the hands of the clock backwards are considered sufficient.

What can be said of Good when evil triumphs worldwide? The interests of capital are imposed throughout the world, leaving no room for safety, by the hand of authoritarian governments. Wars kill innocents on a daily basis; people's rights are trampled on without consideration; Large masses are considered enemies to be eliminated, such as migrants and Palestinians. The triumphs achieved are shattered and we return to an era of darkness and repression.

For this reason, the unity of Good, Truth and Beauty continues to be the task of humanity's present, the one that challenges us and summons us.

So, the urgency of writing new ones is clear Prolegomena to any future metaphysics that will be able to present itself as science (Kant, 1959), which clearly indicates that these crucial metaphysical issues do not constitute a wrong tendency of reason and that, contrary to what Kant considers, they have to do directly with the empirical and with the daily life of peoples and individuals. It is not possible to throw out of metaphysics and, consequently, from reason, the metaphysical principles that make us what we are: Good, Truth and Beauty.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bibliography

Aspect, A. (2025). If only Einstein had known. Barcelona: Penguin Random House.

Bliss, R., & Miller, J. (Eds.). (2021). The Routledge Handbook of Metametaphysics. Routledge.

Cousin, V. (1847). Philosophy course: On the foundation of the absolute ideas of the true, the beautiful and the good. Society of Authors, Booksellers and Printers of Spain.

Derrida, J. (1971). Of grammatology. Mexico: XXI Century.

Dyke, H. (2021). Time (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108935517

Erice Sebares, F. (2020). In Defense of Reason: Contribution to the Critique of Postmodernism. Siglo XXI de España Editores / Akal.

Gersh, S. (2006). Neoplatonism After Derrida: Parallelograms. Leiden: Brill.

Glazier, M. (2022). Essence (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108935494

Heidegger, M. (2014). What is metaphysics? Madrid: Alianza Editorial.

Heil, J. (2021). Relations (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108939904

Kant, E. (1959). Prolegomena. Madrid: Aguilar.

Liggins, D. (2024). Abstract Objects (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press.

Marion, J.-L. (2010). God without being. Pontevedra: Ellago Ediciones.

Marmodoro, A., & Mayr, E. (2019). Metaphysics: An Introduction to Contemporary Debates and Their History. Oxford University Press.

Mignolo, W. (2003). Local stories, global designs. Madrid: Akal.

Miller, J. (2022). Metaphysical Realism and Anti-Realism (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009006927

Morganti, M. (2024). Metaphysics and the Sciences (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009238939

Ney, A. (2021). The World in the Wave Function: A Metaphysics for Quantum Physics. Oxford University Press.

Sattig, T. (2021). Material Objects (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009019606

Seifert, V. (2023). Chemistry's Metaphysics (Elements in Metaphysics). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009238861

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jueves, 19 de febrero de 2026

MARX ON THE HOLODECK: THE USE OF THE TERM DETERMINATION IN CAPITAL




1.         
INTRODUCTION

The term determination, especially in its appearance in concrete determinations, has been used repeatedly to characterize historical materialism. Often, the phrases in which it appears in the works of Marx and Engels have been fetishized and frozen in time, preventing a deeper understanding of it.

In order to contribute to a broader understanding, we turn to the processing of Capital, Volume I, using artificial intelligence, NotebookLM, for the purpose of an extensive, quasi-exhaustive processing of the uses of the term determination.

In this way, the different uses of this term in Marx's work will be made visible, in addition to being able to compare them and indicate better approximation for establishing their meaning. In this case, the most important finding is that the technical economical use of term determination creates a space for specifying its meaning.

On the other hand, the need for more in-depth studies on Marx and Marxism will benefit greatly from the use of AI while remaining aware of its limitations. For example, it is a very useful tool for data processing, but it fails in its analysis, in which it tends to repeat commonplaces on the subject.

2.          METHODOLOGY

Karl Marx's Capital, Volume 1 has been uploaded to NotebookLM. I have used Paul Reitter's most recent English translation. (Marx, 2024) Next, a search is conducted for occurrences of the term "determination," along with its variants. Only Marx's text was used; prologues, introductions, indexes, or comments by other authors were not considered, and no external references to other authors were used in the analysis.

A prompt is entered to classify occurrences of the term according to its use in Capital. The data is then cleaned and labeled, identifying variables according to their use in economic and quantitative techniques, other technical uses, and general uses.

In addition, references taken from works other than Marx's Capital are removed, as are comments taken from external sources that refer to a frequent interpretation of the term determination.

A database is constructed that includes numbering, field, information found, page, and citation. The citations allow the exact location from which they were taken to be viewed in NotebookLM.

3.          RESULTS

The processing of the information yielded the following results: a summary of findings, overview (not included here), three specific tables for each classification category.         

Summary of findings.

               Technical, economic, and quantitative use:

This use refers to measurements of magnitudes, price calculations, mathematical economic laws, and financial limits.

General and descriptive use.

Use to describe physical processes, identify facts, or external circumstances without deep technical meaning.

Social, historical, and logical use.

This refers to the logical structure of categories, social laws of work, and the historical determination of social life.

 

Tabla 1: Technical, Economic, and Quantitative Use

#

Information Found

Textual Quote

Page

1

Critique of Smith on the determination of value.

Smith confuses the fact that value is determined by the quantity of labor expended to produce a commodity

24 (Nota 16)

2

Polarity relationship between forms of value.

The relative value-form and the equivalent form are a pair, inseparable and mutually determining.

26

3

Section title on form determination.

The Quantitative Determination of the Relative Value-Form

30

4

Defining value in terms of magnitude.

The term “value” is used here for quantitatively determined value, i.e., magnitude of value

31 (Nota 20)

5

Magnitude of the value of the jacket.

The coat’s magnitude of value remains determined, as before, by the labor-time needed to produce it

31

6

Absence of measurement in the equivalent form.

But the equivalent form of a commodity doesn’t contain any quantitative determination of value.

33

7

Critique of Bailey on conceptual determinations.

exploded all conceptual determinations of value.

39 (Nota 25)

8

Scientific identification of the magnitude of value.

identify how the magnitude of value is determined.

52

9

Essential constituents that form value.

these relations contain all the essential determinants of value.

53

10

Criticism of the use of value to measure other commodities.

use it to determine the value of other commodities.

56 (Nota 33)

11

Gold's Role in Price Calculation.

when it is a factor in the determination of prices

76 (Nota 12)

12

Money supply defined by the sum of prices.

the amount of the means of circulation is determined by the aggregate sum of prices to be realized when all commodities are sold.

92

13

A factor that fixes the mass of money in circulation.

that determines the amount of money put into the circulation process

94

14

Relationship between means of circulation and prices.

the amount of the means of circulation determines prices.

97 (Nota 30)

15

Reference to a defined monetary sum (quote from North).

There is required for carry ing on the trade of the nation, a determinate sum of specifick Money

107 (Nota 46)

16

Price of products determined by mass.

price of which is determined in general and without regard to particular circumstances

185 (Nota 8)

17

The Laws Governing the Value of Labor Power.

three laws determine labor-power's value

474

18

Limit for new value generated in production.

How much the amount of surplus-value produced can change is determined by labor-power's new value limit.

474

19

Technical question about the value of the working day.

How, then, would the value of a twelve-hour workday be determined?

492

20

Quantity of work fixed by the provisions (Note).

the quantity of labour and not the price of it [i.e., nominal daily or weekly wages], that is determined by the price of provisions

502 (Nota 4)

21

Economic ratio conditioned by the environment.

(and is determined by circumstances that we don’t need to explicate any further here).

542

22

Title on the extension of the accumulation.

The Circumstances that Determine the Extent of Accumulation

549

23

Method of scientific exposition of magnitudes.

the determination of magnitudes of value is expressly foregrounded

702

24

Quantitative determination of relative form.

The relative value-form’s quantitative determinacy

736

25

Absence of determination in the equivalent form.

Quantitative determinacy is not contained in the equivalent-form

736

Ilustración 1Elaboración propia. 2026

 

Tabla 2: General Use, Descriptive

#

Information Found

Textual Quote

Page

26

Utility defined by the properties of the body.

Determined by the properties of a commodity’s body, it would not exist without them.

14

27

Reference to an already established weight.

iron whose weight has already been determined.

33

28

Action of Setting the Weight of a Physical Body.

body whose weight has to be determined.

34

29

Times set by the nature of the process.

spans of time, determined by the nature of the labor process itself

300

30

Additional Workforce Factors.

identified additional determining factors

473

lustración 2 Elaboración propia

 

Tabla 3: Social, Historical, and Logical Use

#

Information Found

Textual Quote

Page

31

Logical determinations of reflection (King/Subject).

Such reflective determinations are a curious thing.

34 (Nota 22)

32

Social background governing accidental appearance.

the background that determines— and also differs essentially from— this accidental appearance shines through right away.

40

33

The non-arbitrariness of value magnitudes.

labor products’ magnitudes of value no longer seem to be determined arbitrarily.

52

34

Persistence of the Cosmic Form of Determination.

hardly clears away the thingly form of their determination, which remains in place as much as before.

52

35

Production determines social life (Note).

mode of production of material life determines the general processes of social, political, and intellectual life.

58 (Nota 35)

36

Capital as an organizer of the social structure.

form that capital has when it determines the economic organization of modern society.

137

Ilustración 3 Elaboración propia. 2026

 

4.          DISCUSSION

The summary of the results indicates the predominance of the general, descriptive, and quantitative use of the term determination; this word, in German and Spanish, has the ambiguity of referring to common and ordinary facts, such as mentioning "a certain amount," or a specific thing we are looking for; and, on the other hand, it acquires a technical semantic dimension, where its precise meaning depends on the scientific field, as is the case with determinants in mathematics; and, in this case, its use in political economy. This technical meaning can also take on a philosophical and logical nuance.

The use of term determination in Marx's political economy takes on a functional and, therefore, operational dimension. Above all, it is a calculation tool that establishes the variables that allow the value of a function to be determined, in the same way that force is measured by the product of mass and acceleration; thus, surplus value is determined by the amount of unpaid labor incorporated into the commodity.

In occurrences 4 and 12, the technical economic and quantitative use becomes fully visible, especially in the form of a function; thus, value always refers to a certain magnitude of value; and, as the commentary says: the quantity of means of circulation is directly proportional to the sum of prices.

4

Defining value in terms of magnitude.

The term “value” is used here for quantitatively determined value, i.e., magnitude of value

31 (Nota 20)

12

Money supply defined by the sum of prices.

the amount of the means of circulation is determined by the aggregate sum of prices to be realized when all commodities are sold.

92

 

The general and descriptive use of the term determination does not present any major difficulty; it simply refers to everyday usage, to refer to things that are not specified, but could be: a certain amount of rice. In occurrences 27 and 28, this general use, part of ordinary language, is clearly seen; that is, a given weight of a body. 

27

Reference to an already established weight.

iron whose weight has already been determined.

33

28

Action of Setting the Weight of a Physical Body.

body whose weight has to be determined.

34

 Social, historical, and logical usage is present in Capital in a more occasional and marginal way; it certainly reaffirms central theses of historical materialism but mentions them as complementary to the analyses it is carrying out. Let us review these few occurrences. In this case, I am providing the complete quotation so that the context in which the term determination appears can be seen.

 In occurrence 31, Marx refers ironically to Hegel's determinations of reflection, although he highlights their correlative nature, in which each of the terms implies the existence of the other.

31

Such reflective determinations are a curious thing. A man is a king only because other people behave toward him as his subjects. Of course, they believe themselves to be his subjects because he is their king. (34. Note 22) 

Occurrence 32 shows how the use of determination is linked to the dialectic of phenomena and their appearances, and between essences and accidents; an approach that will predominate in Capital, that is, one that relates phenomena to their manifestations or expressions. 

32

Twenty yards of linen = 1 coat: In this first form, it might be purely accidental that the two commodities can be exchanged in a certain quantitative ratio. In the second form, in contrast, the background that determines—and also differs essentially from—this accidental appearance shines through right away.

 These two occurrences, 33 and 34, which are in the same paragraph, the determination is used technically in the field of economics; it is included in Table 3 solely to show the causal relationships between the functions and their variables. Here, determined means that it is not arbitrary.

 

33 y 34

Once this secret is discovered, labor products’ magnitudes of value no longer seem to be determined arbitrarily. But this hardly clears away the thingly form of their determination, which remains in place as much as before. (52)

 Only these two final occurrences refer to the general concept of historical materialism and one of its foundations: the mode of production determines society in all its aspects (35); and, specifically, capital determines the economic organization of society (36).

35

My position is that each particular mode of production and the relations of production that go with it at each particular moment—in short, “the economic structure of society”—constitutes “the real foundation on which a legal and political superstructure arises, and that definite forms of social consciousness correspond to that foundation. In my view, the mode of production of material life determines the general processes of social, political, and intellectual life.” (58. Nota 35)

 36

This, of course, is why our analysis of capital’s elementary form hasn’t yet said anything about merchant capital and usury capital, those famous and, so to speak, antediluvian forms of capital, and has instead focused on the form that capital has when it determines the economic organization of modern society. (137)

 These theses of Marx are well known and have been extensively debated. However, the aim here is to establish how Marx understands the notion of determination considering these findings. The direct source is Hegel's Science of Logic, specifically the part dealing with determinations of reflection, which will be used to write chapter 1 of Capital; but in Marx's hands, it undergoes major transformations. (Hegel, 2011)

Hegel's use of the term determination has a logical status, taking into account that the real and the rational ultimately end up being part of the same determination of being; that is, the ontological and epistemological planes collapse into one, which narrates the history of the spirit through its multiple manifestations.

In Marx, the two planes separate again, and thus the concept of determination ceases to be a logical category and becomes an epistemological category. In other words, the uses indicated in Table 3 must be interpreted in accordance with the use in Table 1.

The concept of determination, as it appears in the thesis of the mode of production as the determinant of all social reality, must be understood from a functional and operational perspective; that is, to investigate the specific way in which the phenomenon called capital structures the economy of society, which is Marx's task in Capital. In fact, Marx will adopt a phenomenological approach to say that capital manifests and expresses itself in the economy of society, which it structures and provides with a foundation.

Marx moves away from Hegelian logicism and hence the widespread predominance of the economic and operational use of the term, which should serve as a guide for interpreting the appearances of the term in other contexts and in other works. This in no way invalidates historical materialism but rather shows it in its true dimension, which is to describe and explain in what specific way, through what processes and structures, this determination is fulfilled: the mode of production determines society.

 It is not enough to simply state this central thesis; we must also show how it actually works, as Marx does in Capital, where we see how the economic processes of capitalism are expressed in personifications, which are social classes, and how these represent the world according to their specific interests.

5.          CONCLUSION.

In conclusion, the term determination in Capital shifts from its logicist version to an epistemological understanding, which allows us to describe how capital works and its relationship with a society's economy, and thus acquires, preeminently, an operational dimension.

Processing using this AI, NotebookLM, made it possible to show the uses of the term and establish a correlation between them, as well as to identify the main trends. This made it possible to clarify the types of use of the term determination, with its greatest weight falling on technical economical use, which has a functional and operational connotation.

Bibliography

Hegel. (2011). La Ciencia de la Lógica (Vol. 2). (F. Duque, Trad.) Madrid: Abada Editores/ Uam Ediciones.

Marx, K. (2024). Capital (Vol. I). (P. Reitter, Trad.) Princeton: Princeton University Press.